Conduit Metaphor - Definition and Examples

Conduit Metaphor s A conduit metaphor is a type of conceptual metaphor (or figurative comparison) commonly used in English to talk about the process of communication. The concept of the conduit metaphor was originally explored by Michael Ready in his 1979 article The Conduit Metaphor: A Case of Frame Conflict in Our Language About Language (see below). Reddy estimated that the conduit metaphor functions in roughly 70% of the expressions used to talk about ​language. The Framework of the Conduit Metaphor Typical solutions to the unskilled speakers communication problems are illustrated by (4) through (8). (4) Whenever you have a good idea practice capturing it in words(5) You have to put each concept into words very carefully(6) Try to pack more thoughts into fewer words(7) Insert those ideas elsewhere in the paragraph(8) Dont force your meanings into the wrong words. Naturally, if language transfers thought to others, then the logical container, or conveyer, for this thought is words, or word-groupings like phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and so on. . . .[F]our categories . . . constitute the major framework of the conduit metaphor. The core expressions in these categories imply, respectively, that: (1) language functions like a conduit, transferring thoughts bodily from one person to another; (2) in writing and speaking, people insert their thoughts or feelings in the words; (3) words accomplish the transfer by containing the thoughts or feelings and conveying them to others; and ( 4) in listening or reading, people extract the thoughts and feelings once again from the words.(Michael J. Reddy, The Conduit Metaphor: A Case of Frame Conflict in Our Language About Language. Metaphor and Thought, ed. by Andrew Ortony. Cambridge University Press, 1979) The Conduit Metaphor and Communication [Michael] Reddy points out that the Conduit Metaphor is not a specific expression; rather, it names the metaphoric assumptions that enable a range of common expressions such as getting the message across, putting thoughts into words, and getting a lot out of a text. . . .Although the Conduit Metaphor may fail to describe all that transpires in typical writing situations, it does not impose an erroneously reductive structure upon complex activity but rather grows out of a complex of embodied activity, situated experience, and rhetorical human relationships. It is a rhetorical metaphor that, in certain instances, asserts a description of communication or an ethical standard. Without it, for example, we would have little basis for ethical objections to lying, concealment, failure to warn, failure to be responsible, and so on. It is crucial that we recognize, however, that when the Conduit Metaphor is treated as credible, it is combined with other concepts whose implications support its credibility. Most saliently, it combines with Language Is Power, a concept that has both evident ontological and ethical ramifications.(Philip Eubanks, Metaphor and Writing: Figurative Thought in the Discourse of Written Communication. Cambridge University Press, 2011) Lakoff on the Grammar of Conduit Metaphors Now consider: That idea just came to me out of the blue. . . . The general conceptual metaphor involved here is the CONDUIT metaphor, according to which ideas are objects that can be sent and received. Out of the blue is a metaphorical source phrase, and That idea is not just the Content of the cognitive experience, but is also the metaphorical Theme that moves to me. The grammar of the sentence is a reflection of the metaphor. That is, it has the grammar of a literal Theme-Goal-Source sentence, like the literal The dog came to me out of the kennel. To put it another way, the sentence has source domain syntax. . . .Now let us turn to a case where an Experiencer is a metaphysical Patient and has the syntax of a Patient: The idea struck me out of the blue. Again, we have the CONDUIT metaphor, with an idea that is conceptualized as an object that comes from a source out of the blue to me, not just reaching me as a goal but striking me. Thus, me is not merely a Goal, but moreover, a Pati ent that is affected by being struck. The verb struck is from the source domain, as is the syntax, in which me is direct object, which is the natural grammatical relation for a Patient to have.(George Lakoff, Reflections on Metaphor and Grammar. Essays in Semantics and Pragmatics: In Honor of Charles J. Fillmore, ed. by Masayoshi Shibatani and Sandra A. Thompson. John Benjamins, 1995) Challenging the Conduit Metaphor In Metaphors We Live By, Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 10-12 et passim) describe what they call the CONDUIT metaphor as a cross-domain mapping consisting of the following main correspondences: IDEAS (OR MEANINGS) ARE OBJECTSLINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAINERSCOMMUNICATION IS SENDING(Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 10) This formulation of the CONDUIT metaphor has since become the most widely accepted account of the dominant way in which speakers of English talk and think about communication (e.g. Taylor 2002: 490 and KÃ ¶vecses 2002: 73-74). More recently, however, [Joseph] Grady (1997a, 1997b, 1998, 1999) has questioned the validity of the CONDUIT metaphor alongside that of many other well-established formulations of conceptual metaphors, for the following reasons: first, it lacks a clear experiential basis; second, it does not explain why some prominent elements of the source domain are not conventionally mapped onto the target (e.g. the notion of opening or sealing packages is not conventi onally projected from the domain of the transfer of objects to the domain of communication); and third, it does not account for why many expressions that have been associated with the CONDUIT metaphor are in fact conventionally used in relation to other domains of experience as well (e.g. The detective couldnt get much information out of the partial shoeprint (Grady 1998: 209, italics in original)).(Elana Semino, A Corpus-Based Study of Metaphors for Speech Activity in British English. Corpus-Based Approaches to Metaphor and Metonymy, ed. by Anatol Stefanowitsch and Stefan Th. Gries. Mouton de Gruyter, 2006) Alternate Spellings: Conduit Metaphor See Examples and Observations below. Also see: MetalanguageCommunication ProcessMetaphorThirteen Ways of Looking at a MetaphorWriting Process

Construction Management Techniques Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Construction Management Techniques - Essay Example Unlike bureaucratic structures, those administrative systems offer every individual to work as a unit of a hierarchy to concentrate only over a segment of work to enhance his capabilities of production as a human resource. Consequently, it becomes the main responsibility of an individual to cope with the other parallel and serial units of hierarchy in a way that provides a smooth workflow throughout the structure and enhances the overall capability regarding quality and quantity of outcomes. This synchronization of individuals depends chiefly on the communication and information modules that individual fulfills. And, resultantly, communication and information framework becomes the utmost important area to be attended by the individuals as well as the administrative authorities. Task 1.b Depending chiefly to the basic framework and applied strategies, measure of company’s performance is rooted in the fact for how much it can comply with its mission statement that manifests the chief goals set by company. When a company spreads its dimension and transforms from medium to large company, it necessarily requires a metamorphosis of its applied strategies while still being firm to its ground framework which assures that company’s dealings will serve the continued purposes that had brought the company to a stage offering such transformation. Thus, a transformation from a medium to a large company requires a long term plan that initiates with the formula strategies of the company to the new offering that company achieves with expansions. Mostly, new demands also require building new strategies for specific cases. It is must to be farsighted and preplanned for such expansion which is only possible if a full plan is preset with the possible options and alternatives for tasks upcoming with forwarding and transforming. Task 2 Pre-construction requirements As the construction at Santiago way requires a small portion with two flats and a pair of semi detached ho use, the whole construction will require some earlier steps that will serve as the base strategy of the constructions. First of all, the documentation and authorization will be required to be locked before the site survey and construction planning. It will include a construction certification and council approving. Once the documentation and legal procedures are over, company may lead to site survey that will include an analysis of current and earlier weather, soil and ground condition. Overall pre-construction will finish up with the following steps: Legal documentation and authorization Earlier to site survey, a construction agreement and council permission will be required. Construction may lead to involve in various steps that involves excavation, refilling, noises and temporary hurdling of pathway that will be clearly mentioned in the documentations. Construction environment Survey History of the construction will be analyzed over the standard patterns. Estimated climate condit ions, quality of soil, underground scab, domestic colony development plans, electric and water supply inlets and outlets will be examined and included in the survey. Site survey Regular visit to the site will involve a number of examinations over the elevation of the site and its foundational depth resting of underground layer. Various elevations and earth crust deformations will be mapped to find out how much space, equipments and labor

Bounded Rationality Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Bounded Rationality - Assignment Example Bounded rationality is a decision-making theory developed by Simon Herbert which postulates that the rationality of the decision maker is limited by a number of factors such as the amount of information available to the individual, the constraint of time among other factors. Simon identified three difficulties which people face while making a decision. To begin with, there is the difficulty of limited knowledge of any particular decision which the person may make. Because of this, a person may not be able to optimally know the best decision to make at a certain time because they do not know the range of outcomes (negative or positive) which will emanate from the decision. The second difficulty a decision maker may face is the fact that even for those consequences which they may be able to predict, there is no guarantee that the outcome will be exactly the same as anticipated by the decision maker. The third constraint is the constraint of the number of options which the decision make r can use. Simon’s model stands in sharp contrast to Charles Lindblom’s theory which used incrementalism to explain decision making (Simon, p. 38). As the author says â€Å"Simon's model of bounded rationality also stands in sharp contrast to the rational choice model. In its purest form, this model assumes that individuals making decisions know their preferences, are able to consider all possible alternatives and can anticipate the full set of consequences that will flow from each alternative† (Simon, p38). However, according to Simon â€Å"Whatever model might be employed by decision makers in an ideal world, satisfaction seems to be the one most of them use in the real world† (Simon, p. 39).

Foreign Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Foreign Policy - Essay Example Freedom is an imperative ideal in the Western culture and governance based on democratic principles upholds the aspect to the latter. The NSC 68 describes the value as a correlation of individuals or parties which is devoid of repression or intimidation; the lack of disabling rules for a certain group or person and the establishment of enabling environment; or the lack of lived situations of coercion, for example political coercion in the United States society. Whereas political liberty is usually misunderstood to mean the liberty from irrational external repression, it may also be used to connote the free enjoyment of rights, liberal aptitudes and likelihood of development, and the enjoyment of social rights. The idea can also encompass liberty from limitations on political activities or expression (Jong-Han 255-287). Equity Although inequality cannot be eliminated completely, all the members of the society should be treated the same way, before the law and by administration authorities. Nevertheless, in practice, persons with more economic muscle and education are likely to be better placed in political circles, thus often influence civil society. As a matter of fact, there may be an evenhanded political mechanism with hardly any significant levels of involvement, so long as all demographic segments and social divisions uniformly took part in the building of a society (Jong-Han 255-287). Then those who take part in the process would properly represent a section of the entire community. In view this, equity can influence the foreign policy of the United States by enhancing political justness in other countries where the federal government feels equity is hardly practiced, by increasing the population of individuals who take part in political activities and empowering civil society. When the United States encourages more people to take their destiny and the destiny of the country into their own hands through programs such as more awareness campaigns, underprivileged communities and the less educated achieve more say. Diversity According to Jong-Han (255-287), diversity is the expression used to explain political entities with participants who hold recognizable disparity in their lifestyles. It is notable that the expression implies the disparities in racial or tribal categories, age, sex, spiritual inclination, ideology, physical capacities, socioeconomic status, sexual inclination, gender identity, education, mental status, physical capacities, genetic qualities, behavior, elegance, or other recognizable attributes. In gauging human multiplicity, a variation index gauges the likelihood that any two neighbors, picked randomly, would have varied ethnic backgrounds. Diversity in this wisdom can influence the nature of United States foreign policy based on the need for a cultivation of tolerant societies which supports the different communities regardless of their unique inclinations or qualities. For instance, the country can urge other states to adopt gay legislations in order to guarantee the community of a place in the society and enhance their integration into the society (Wright 76-104) American foreign policy The United States foreign policy revolves around the manner in which the country relates with other states and establishes thresholds of correlation for its institutions, business organizations and citizens in particular. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union around 1990, the United States foreign policy became highly influential across the world, because the former was already a pale shadow of its former self, with only disparate nations to

A Teacher’s Involvement on Education Reform Essay Example for Free

A Teacher’s Involvement on Education Reform Essay Student achievement is constantly changing. Today’s students are being prepared to face the real world that requires them to have exceeding abilities and knowledge. On the global economic aspect of today, students are asked to understand the fundamentals and at the same time be able to think critically. They must analyze and make inferences. It is the teacher’s task to develop these skills in the students. They must prepare them for any changes in the assessment of the school, especially when this approach is of the large scale and high-stake level. Education in the United States has been reformed countless times – all for various reasons. The changes in the knowledge and skills that are aimed for success go hand in hand with the understanding of how students learn. The relationship between the instruction given in schools and the assessment of the students through exams change the learning goals that are set for them and their schools. Therefore, the need for education reform. 1 Before, society can get by with the basic reading and arithmetic skills. This was during the industrial age. However, we are now in an information age. Individuals are required to have access to the interpretation and analysis of the information that they use in order to come up with decisions. Studies show that the skills and competencies mentioned in the previous sentence are the requirements to succeed in the workplace. 2 To adapt to these changes, the content standards of education – skills, knowledge and behavior of the students – must be achieved at a higher level. This is developed at the national, as well as the state areas of science, mathematics, history and geography. In this process, student assessment is the focus and the center of the efforts on matters concerning educational improvements. The policymakers intend to change the assessment that will allow teachers and schools to have different approaches. Assessment reform is not an excuse for a new regime by teachers. This is targeted to the students with the help of the development efforts of the teachers. These include curriculum reform, improving instruction and getting new instructional materials. A number of policymakers and educators believe that the assessment of the students reflect the lessons that they were taught. It’s true that the assessment influences the format of instruction. Contrary to the understanding of today’s students on how they learn their lessons, the assessments are particularly traditional. Most exams still follow the multiple-choice and the true-false format. These test facts determine the skill in an isolated approach. It seldom requires the students to apply what they really know, making it hard to determine what they are capable of doing in real life situations. The standardized tests do not match the content standards. Relying too much on these kinds of assessment often result to an instruction that only focuses on the basic knowledge and skills. It does not encourage the institution to reform the instruction give to the students. Engaged learning will prepare the students better for the 21st century. That being said, it only makes sense that the tests the students take encourage aggressive learning. 3 The notion that learning comes about by the accretion of little bits is outmoded learning theory. Current models of learning based on cognitive psychology contend that learners gain understanding when they construct their own cognitive maps of the interconnections among concepts and facts. Thus, real learning cannot be spoon-fed, one skill at a time. 4 Educators, policymakers and parents are starting to realize that the basic learning abilities are no longer enough. They need the students to have the skills they learned in school and the abilities they need upon leaving school all at the same time. Schools are expected to assist students in developing these competencies which they will use in real and authentic situations. The establishments are expected to graduate students who have these abilities – students who excel on both the standardized and the alternative assessments. During the last decade, the education community in the United States went through a proliferation of reform efforts that are standardized-driven. Its main objective is to increase the achievement level of the students. They want students from the United States achieve the same level of competitiveness with other industrialized nations. The education community also wants to restore the public confidence in the education. Once these are achieved, then it provides the standards-setting bodies the primary ways on how the classroom teachers can be involved in the reforming process. The federal government is a prominent player in the reforming efforts one educations. It goes all the way back in March 1994 when President Clinton signed the â€Å"Goals 2000: Educate America Act. It was the legislation that created the framework which allowed states to adopt and construct the education reform strategies by incorporating the three Goals principles: 1. ) rigorous academic standards. 2. ) alignment of curriculum, textbooks and teacher education and 3. ) clear incentives to encourage students to strive to meet high standards. Also, in 1987, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards or the NBPTS was formed in order to articulate the standards of excellence to what teachers must know and should know. NBPTS has an assessment system that determines the eligibility of the educators for the National Board certification. At the same time, the Council of Chief State School Officers has established the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) to produce the model standards for the initial teacher licensure. INTASC standards are based on NBPTS standards. In 1987, the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) started using the revised accreditation standards for teacher education institutions. This also reflects NBPTS standards. It calls for better performance, higher admissions and graduate standards. NCATE encourages the teachers to prepare the reforms on education at a content standard that has appeared from projects such as the NCTMs. There are three kinds of national standards which currently receive attention from the American government. The content standards focus on the curriculum, the performance standards concentrate on the student work and the assessment, and the school delivery standards which centers on the resources and support for the schools, teachers and students. The building figures from the consensus prominently show that the standards- setting movement of the schools and teachers has had de facto standards for the content areas that are mentioned in the Goals. These are affected by the textbook manufactures and the performance standards that are set by the testing companies. In contrast to this, the standards development projects of recent years have tried to get a base of support for a ny academic improvement. The involvement of teacher in the professional standards development can be seen in various areas: 1.  The teachers function as the standards. A lot of members of the NBPTS standards committees are accomplished and celebrated teachers. Classroom teachers are members of the NCATE board and the Standards Committee serve as the team which evaluates the teacher preparation programs. The Standard Project is there to develop the assessment standards. It also serves as the instrument for a national system of voluntary student examination. It engages the teachers in developing the tests items and refining the content standards in order to come up with better scores from the students. 2.  Teachers are the subjects of the fields that are new to test standards. Since they participate in the NBPTS field test, the INTAST assessments are conducted by teachers. 3. Teachers serve as the translators of the content standards. They apply this in a teachable classroom setting. By working with the scholars, the teachers build the contend standards in a state curriculum framework. They come up with lesson plans which are the operations for the standards they intend to meet. 4. Because they bargain units and have professional associations, teachers serve as the initiators of the standards-setting projects.  Take this for example, the Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students was developed by the American Federation of Teachers, the National Council on Measurement in Education and the National Education Association. 5. Teachers also serve as the critics of the national standards that set the efforts on education reform. The seven model standards that have been developed and supported by the Board of Education have circulated drafts of the standards documents. It also solicits the comment from the teachers and the parents. It is very important that teachers are on the panels in order to oversee the projects. The promotion of students’ critical thinking skills, active engagement in learning and deeper understanding of the subject matter is â€Å"teaching for understanding. † The classroom teachers must be engaged in teaching and understanding the lessons that they teach to the students. The research and the experience are collaborated and are jointly reported. Teachers must also focus on the policy considerations, starting with the perspectives in the classroom and emphasizing on the need for the field-based research that are needed for the multiple contexts of teaching. However, the involvement of teachers also varies on the perception of the school leadership. There are some teachers that perceive the costs of involvement in education reform outweigh the benefits. There are also some teachers who choose to not get involved because it means that this will influence other school policies. With this in mind, this proves that there are two kinds of decisions: the managerial, which is made by the administrators and the technical, which concentrates on the goal. Most teachers prefer being involved in the process than coming up with technical decisions. 7 Then there are some teachers that argue that education reform cannot be imposed on a unilateral approach. Teachers must endorse their new responsibilities and roles, as long as there is a time and enough resources to go about it. Schools depend on the cooperation, relation and interdependence of the staff members that plans such as these must be consistent with the norms that already exist. 8 Schools must also consider the current staff development. There are some models that do not help the teachers in handling the complex reforms that are currently being implemented. Dominant models work perfectly when the specific practices or skills are transferred. The current reforms need teachers to be intellectual. They must grapple the new ways in order to implement the principles and ideas in their daily work. The five steams of reform are challenges to the teachers. 9 Finally, there are the different studies of teachers when it comes to leadership roles. There are conditions that are particularly good prospects when it comes to leadership. By investing in roles that are dignified and not simply powerful, the organizational incentives needed for collaboration results to agreements which protect and separate the interest of the administrators and the teachers. This is a good thing because its final result is that it complies with the policies which support the education reform. Drawing from four different studies of teachers in leadership roles, the author examines the conditions for teacher productivity in schools. Little identifies five conditions as particularly likely to advance or erode the prospects for teacher leadership: define leadership tasks that are important, not trivial; invest leadership roles with dignity, not simply power over others; have organizational incentives for collaboration; avoid agreements that protect the separate interests of teachers and administrators; and have district policies that support teacher leadership, especially those on recruitment, selection, placement, and evaluation of principals. 10 Sometimes it is better to give movie examples. Over the years, there are countless movie releases that show teachers defying the school’s rules in order to provide what is best for their students. In â€Å"Dangerous Minds†, Michelle Pfeiffer encourages her students to read poetry instead of hanging out in the street and ruining their lives by getting involved in drugs, sex and gangsters. In the â€Å"Sister Act 2†, Whoopi Goldberg helms a choir consisting of African American students from the ghettos. Like Pfeiffer in â€Å"Dangerous Minds†, this is the nun’s distraction for the students to make something out of their lives. But a recent movie that depicts educational reform and teacher’s involvement best is the TV movie â€Å"Walkout. † It tells the story of the Mexican-American students in Los Angeles high schools in 1968. They staged a boycott in order to improve the quality of education for Chicanos. Actor-director Edward James Olmos (who plays Jennifer Lopez’ dad in â€Å"Selena) appears and directs in the movie. â€Å"Walkout† was skillfully directed and presented a simple story told in a direct manner. There is a frank portrayal of the unacceptable educational standards in the schools that are attended by the Mexican-American students. In one scene, two Chicano students were slapped on their behinds because they spoke in Spanish. This was only one of the rules in American schools which Mexican-American activists wanted to reform. They want to speak in Spanish whenever they want to because Spanish is their language. For teachers who want a peg in participating in educational reforms, they can look at Sal Castro played by Michael Pena (Jennifer Lopez’ brother in â€Å"Selena. ) He is a dedicated high school history teacher who is the instrument in stirring idealism in his students. He didn’t want them to be violent activists. He encouraged reform but he reminded them that this can be done in a united and peaceful protest. The focal point of the story is Paula Crisostomo (Alexa Vega) who is an exceptional student. She risked her graduation in order to be part of the Lincoln High School walkout. â€Å"Walkout† captures the passion of Paula and her classmates. The parents strongly resisted at the earlier part of the film, but later on they slowly understood the reason behind the activism of their children. The entire cast, played by young performers, is convincing. It is true that â€Å"Walkout† is a film but this is a depiction of something that happened in 1968 which changed history. Because of that walk-out, Mexican-American students are given a voice. The teacher participated in his own way in the education reform his students want granted. Those who watched this movie for the first time were unaware of the Chicano movement of 1968. They were surprised to find out that there was a time Universities kept Chicanos out. Teachers sacrifice their efforts and their time in order to concretize the goals they want for their students. Education reform may not be achieved with just one snap of a finger but that does not mean that teachers should stop trying there and then. For this very reason of reform, teachers and students are more motivated to strive toward success. Education reform is a right that must be made the most out of. It could be better opportunities for the teachers as well as the students. Once the school is presented an option to have an education, then they must seize it. It may be puzzling at first but the absence of education reform can have dire effects on the effective teaching in schools. Research shows that successful schools have reformed their education in relation to the demands of today’s information age. By viewing teaching as the central activity of organizations, more and more educational bodies are encouraging schools to take part of education reform. By proposing the norms, conducts, standards and practices which will serve as the central dialogue and observation of teaching, activities and practices that are related to providing a curriculum and materials needed by the school, students and teachers will be open to the recognition of teacher’s involvement in the whole educational reform process.

Bob Marley Essay -- Biography Biographies Bio

Bob Marley is a name most people know but his accomplishments and dedication to music is often overlooked. Bob was more than just a reggae artist, he was an inspiration to the country of Jamaica. He was a role model to the poverty stricken island and gave hope to many people. Bob was born on February 6, 1945 in his grandfather's house. He was the son of a poor farm girl and a British naval Captain. Soon after his birth Bob's father, Norval Marley, left his mother. He remained responsible and provided financial support and occasionally came back to see them. In the 50's a depression hit Jamaica and Bob followed his mother to West Kingston also known as Trenchtown. It was in Trenchtown were Bob's love for music began. Bob Marley's music has given people everywhere hope for a better tomorrow. His life and involvement with the Rastafarian movement left an impact on the world that is still felt today. He sang of peace speaking out against slavery, poverty, and oppression. His philosophy was to send a message through his music that all people are equal and should unite together to make this world a much better place for our future generation. "Every man gotta right to decide his own destiny"(Stephens 2). When Bob Marley said this he was referring to the battle with the Americans and the Indians of the west, where slaves from Africa were forced to fight. He wrote the song "Buffalo Soldier" as a tribute to the injustice of the war. They were brought to America and forced to fight against the Native American Indians. The Indians called them buffalo soldiers because their hair was tightly woven and to them, it resembled the curly and matted buffalo's coat. In the line "Stolen from Africa, brought to America Fighting on arrival, figh... ...y never gave up on his goal for world peace. The point of many of these songs were that you will never loose until you give up your fight. If everyone gave up on the things they were doing once they had failed then where would the world be today? If the U.S. had surrendered in our first world war when one soldier was shot down would we have our great country today? No, we wouldn't because no one gets anywhere when they give up. No one has anything when they give up just another failure to write in their book of history that will most likely not be remembered. All of our great leaders had to try more than once to get what they fought for. Like George Washington fought for freedom for years and when he got it he was known as a great leader to America and it's future generations. Maybe if the world were like Bob Marley we could be further into the future than we are now.

Psychology of Adolescence Essay

BoysTown is a registered charity and a national organization for youth welfare in Australia. It focuses on helping disadvantaged youths who are at risk of social exclusion to enhance their quality of life (â€Å"Youth social†). It recognizes several causes of social exclusion among disadvantaged youths that need to be addressed, which include single parenthood, low self-esteem, physical and mental health problems, substance abuse, lack of work experience, functional illiteracy, and underdeveloped personal and vocational skills (â€Å"Youth social†). BoysTown also recognizes that most of the disadvantage youths came from families who have a history of intergenerational unemployment and welfare dependency and from Indigenous backgrounds (â€Å"Youth social†). BoysTown offers several social inclusion programs to help disadvantage youths to improve their life. The programs include Kids Helpline, Youth Programs, Indigenous community development, Family programs, and Intermediate labor markets. The key attribute of these programs is that they emphasized sustainable outcomes while they rely on safe strategies for working with youths who are at risk of social exclusion (â€Å"Youth social†). BoysTown’s Kids Helpline is a national telephone and web-based counseling program that provides services for more than 60,000 children and youths across the country. The Youth programs offer personal development, training and employment assistance to more than 3,500 youths in communities. BoysTown is collaborating with key stakeholders to work on a social inclusion project with four remote Indigenous communities in the East Kimberleys (â€Å"Youth social†). It also provides parenting programs and family refuges such as home-based support and training to make way for the transition of disadvantaged youths to the wider world (â€Å"Youth social†). The organization also operates various social enterprises and transitional employment programs in order to provide 400 youths per year with paid work and on-the-job training. There are various indicators that demonstrate the degree of social exclusion suffered by families and children, which include low-birth-weight babies, permanent exclusion from school, the number of children living in unemployed households, teenage pregnancy, low academic achievement, and the number of children aged 10-16 who are in young offender institutions (Pierson, 2002). The indicators of social exclusion at the level of community include overcrowded housing, a high percentage of households without a bank account, poor community participation, and high levels of burglaries (Pierson, 2002). The key forces that increases the likelihood of social exclusion are poverty and low income, lack of social supports and networks, lack of access to the labor market, the impact of the local neighborhood, and exclusion from services (Pierson, 2002). Pierson (2002) suggests ways to address social exclusion, which include maximizing income and securing basic resources; improving social networks and supports; collaborating in partnership with local organizations and agencies; developing channels of effective participation for users, local residents, and their organizations; and concentrating on whole neighborhoods. Socially excluded youths have a significant cost impact on society in terms of publicly-funded health services, justice system and social security costs, and the impact of decreased individual earning capacity, lost productivity, and decreased tax revenue (â€Å"Youth social†). The Australian government is investing in developing the capability of the not-for-profit organization to provide more holistic, community-based strategies to respond to social exclusion, especially among young people (â€Å"Youth social†). Models of intervention must be multi-dimensional and aimed at providing young people with a comprehensive range of support over an extended period of time (â€Å"Youth social†). They should also be based on a holistic approach in order for young people to overpower personal barriers; improve their strengths, health, well-being, life and interpersonal skills; develop their self-esteem and the ability to learn; and succeed in shifting to independent living, training or work, and further education (â€Å"Youth social†). BoysTown’s Youth programs are effective in helping youths who are at risk of social exclusion because they incorporate individual assessment, counseling, and support, life skills training, personal development and mentoring; vocational skills training, employment assistance; and post-placement support (â€Å"Youth social†). Young people must be provided assistance into paid employment by giving advice, training and other help that they need to make them more employable (Kemp, 2005). Focusing on individual agency such as young people’s attributes, qualifications, decision-making, and behavior allows young people to successfully transition from welfare to work (Kemp, 2005). The Kids Helpline at BoysTown is similar to a mentoring program that helps disadvantaged young people to tackle social exclusion. Mentoring consists of an informal educative role and personal support and encouragement (Pierson, 2002). Mentor acts as a trusted counselor or guide (Pierson, 2002). The goal of a mentoring or counseling program is to connect two individuals in a one to one voluntary relationship, with one individual being more experienced than the other and with the hope that their knowledge and skills will be transferred (Pierson, 2002). The key features of a mentoring relationship include a voluntary arrangement as required by the individual being mentored and can be ended by either party at any time, interpersonal skills of mentors to manage and monitor the relationship, and the understanding of both mentored and mentors about the boundaries and objective of the relationship (Pierson, 2002). Colley (2003) mentions the popularity of mentoring with policy-makers because it addresses their concerns such as the moralization of social exclusion. The author adds that the solution to social exclusion of young people depends on their re-engagement with the labor market and/or formal learning routes. The key role of mentoring is to provide a way for the re-engagement by changing young people’s values, beliefs, attitudes, and behavior to engage their personal commitment to become employable (Colley, 2003). Mentoring helps young people in terms of empowering them, discussing aspirations, and making them more realistic about their view of work (Colley, 2003). It is also important to assist young people to attain skills in areas such as confidence building, problem solving, improvement of interpersonal skills, punctuality, and team working in order to enhance their personal effectiveness in the workplace (Colley, 2003). Moreover, mentoring is also important to help disadvantaged young people develop social networks and capital (Colley, 2003). It is necessary to create initiatives that involve young people not only in making decisions that affect them individually or on particular services but also in making decisions that influence their communities collectively (Pierson, 2002). Organizations led by young people play an important role in defining services and provide practical support for young persons (Pierson, 2002). The aim of the Indigenous community development at BoysTown is to help young people to re-engage in learning; increase community involvement in formal education and training; enhance access to sustainable mainstream employment opportunities; and develop training and work opportunities through community-based social business enterprises (â€Å"Youth social†). According to Pierson (2002), adolescent support teams have emerged rapidly during the early 1990s. The author adds that the aim of adolescent support teams is to divert youths from the care system and offer short-term preventive service that assists families prevent problems in relationships that might result to homelessness. The approach used by the adolescent support teams is preventive and based on time-limited, task-focused work (Pierson, 2002). Most of the work of the adolescent support teams involves negotiation and mediation between young people and parents (Pierson, 2002). BoysTown enterprises are involved in several community infrastructure development, asset maintenance, and urban renewal projects in disadvantaged areas (â€Å"Youth social†). Enterprise-based intermediate labor markets are effective in minimizing crime and anti-social behavior and in helping young people who are socially excluded to engage again with the labor market (â€Å"Youth social†). According to Aiken (2007), social enterprises are considered mission-driven organizations with a commitment to a specific disadvantaged group. The author adds that placement agencies function as intermediaries in searching and training people to move into work in the mainstream labor market. Social enterprises have often focused on the needs of socially excluded client groups (Aiken, 2007). Aiken (2007) mentions that the origin of social and community enterprises can be found in the mutual and cooperative sector in Great Britain. The author adds that the emergence of this movement has resulted to an important pattern which has focused on the economic development of poorer communities, including the importance of maintaining paid work. Intermediate Labor Market organizations focus on short-term training and employment with the goal of trainees transitioning into paid work in other organizations (Aiken, 2007). They may be working with disadvantaged people and will have a tendency to be reliant on some degree of public sector contracting. References Aiken, M. (2007). What is the role of social enterprise in finding, creating and maintaining employment? for disadvantaged groups? Retrieved June 14, 2009, from http://www. parracity. nsw. gov. au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/22575/Cabinet_Office Colley, Helen (2003). Mentoring for social inclusion: A critical approach to nurturing mentor relationships. New York, NY: Routledge. Kemp, P. A. (2005) Young people and unemployment: From welfare to workfare. In M. Barry (Ed. ), Youth policy and social inclusion: critical debates with young people (pp. 139-156). New York, NY: Routledge. Pierson, J. (2002). Tackling social exclusion. New York, NY: Routledge. Youth social exclusion: A global concern. Retrieved June 14, 2009, from http://www. boystown. com. au/downloads/rep/BT-Youth-Social-Exclusion. pdf